Rational Cum Transcendental Models of Self-Control: A Comparative and Integrative Study of Plato’s and Al-Ghazali’s Views on Self Control
Keywords:
self-control, Plato and al-Ghazali, similarities and differences, rational and transcendence, integrationAbstract
This article compares Plato’s rational view with al-Ghazali’s transcendental approach to self-control, advancing an integrative model that harmonizes rational and spiritual dimensions. Addressing the lack of systematic integration in existing literature, this study employs comparative-conceptual and hermeneutic methods to analyze the philosophical foundations of both thinkers. The results reveal that their divergence lies primarily in accentuation: Plato emphasizes rationality, whereas al-Ghazali prioritizes transcendence, a difference stemming from their distinct ethical orientations. However, significant similarities exist, providing a basis for synthesis. Consequently, this study proposes a "rational-cum-transcendental" model of self-control. In this framework, rationality evaluates the motivations and consequences of behavior, while the transcendental dimension imbues actions with higher purpose and meaning. This synthesis offers a holistic approach, contributing to Islamic philosophy and interdisciplinary discourses on self-regulation across psychology, ethics, and education
References
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———. Iḥyā’ ‘Ulūm Ad-Dīn. Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2005.
———. Kimiyā’ as-Sa‘ādah. Edited by Najāḥ ‘Auḍ. Kairo: Dār al-Muqaṭṭam, 2010.
———. Ma‘ārij al-Qudsi. Kairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1964.
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Al-Mesilini, Seyed Zuhair. “A Comparative Study of the Relationship Between Happiness and Reason in the Views of Socrates and Plato, with Emphasis on the Interpretation of Alexander of Aphrodisias and Abu Nasr al-Farabi.” Journal of Ecohumanism 3, no. 8 (December 20, 2024).
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van Baal, Simon Thomas, Lukasz Walasek, Antonio Verdejo-Garcia, and Jakob Hohwy. “Impulsivity and Self-Control as Timeless Concepts: A Conceptual Analysis of Preferences in Intertemporal Choice,” August 30, 2022.
Bamboulis, Chloe. “Self-Knowledge as Self-Improvement in Plato’s Dialogues and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.” Theory and Psychology 33, no. 3 (2023).
Becker, Daniela, Katharina Bernecker, Aiste Guobyte, and Daniel Ganama. “‘Pleasureful Self-Control’? A New Perspective on Old Problems.” Current Opinion in Psychology 60 (December 2024): 101888.
Budur, Taylan. “Virtue-Based Leadership and Organizational Commitment: A Study from Al-Ghazali’s Perspective.” International Journal of Ethics and Systems (August 22, 2024).
Calenda, Guido. “Theaetetus 151e–186e: Did Plato Refute Protagoras?” Peitho. Examina Antiqua 15, no. 1 (December 12, 2024): 209–230.
Campbell, Douglas R. “Self-Motion and Cognition: Plato’s Theory of the Soul.” Southern Journal of Philosophy 59, no. 4 (2021).
Carmen Cozma. “In Quest for Virtue: Learning From a Great Tradition.” Philosophy Study 12, no. 6 (2022).
Cinta, Fitria, Nafisatun Najwa, Roni Subhan, and Imam Bonjol Jauhari. “Educational Objectives and Criteria for the Ideal Teacher Perspective of Plato and Al Ghazali.” Al Qalam: Jurnal Ilmiah Keagamaan dan Kemasyarakatan 17, no. 5 (September 7, 2023): 3031.
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Dilnavoz, Raximdjanova. “Comparative Analysis of the Role of the Phenomenon of Freedom in the Views of Plato and Farobi.” Current Research Journal of Pedagogics 5, no. 9 (September 1, 2024): 56–66.
Englert, Chris. “Self-Control – A Critical Discussion of a Key Concept in Sport and Exercise Psychology.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 80 (2025): 102878.
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Fujita, Kentaro. “On Conceptualizing Self-Control as More Than the Effortful Inhibition of Impulses.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15, no. 4 (November 17, 2011): 352–366.
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Ghufron, M. Nur, and Rini Risnawati. Teori-Teori Psikologi. Yogyakarta: Ar-Ruzz Media, 2010.
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Hay, Carter, Walter Forrest, Brian Stults, Ryan Meldrum, and Brennan Kirkpatrick. “Collective Self-Control as a Feature of Social Contexts: Theoretical Arguments and a Multilevel Empirical Test.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (2023).
Hirsch, Christina, Charlotte von Bülow, and Peter Simpson. “Stoicism, Philosophy as a Way of Life and Negative Capability: Developing a Capacity for Working in Radical Uncertainty.” Leadership 19, no. 5 (2023).
Inzlicht, Michael, Kaitlyn M. Werner, Julia L. Briskin, and Brent W. Roberts. “Integrating Models of Self-Regulation.” Annual Review of Psychology, 2021.
Irawan, Andi Wahyu, M. Solehuddin, Ilfiandra Ilfiandra, and Hani Yulindrasari. “Building a Culture of Peace in Education: An Exploration of Al-Ghazali’s Thoughts on Inner and Social Peace.” Southeast Asian Journal of Islamic Education 5, no. 2 (2023).
James, Robin. “Waves of Moderation: The Sound of Sophrosyne in Ancient Greek and Neoliberal Times.” In Sound and Affect: Voice, Music, World, edited by Judith Lochhead, 50:365–383. London: University of Chicago Press, 2021.
Kosim, Nandang, and Aat Royhatudin. “Konsep Merdeka Belajar Dalam Kitab Ihya ’Ulumuddin Menurut Pemikiran Imam Ghazali.” Ta’dibiya 4, no. 2 (October 1, 2024): 1–13.
de la Fuente, Jesús, Mónica Pachón-Basallo, José Manuel Martínez-Vicente, Francisco Javier Peralta-Sánchez, Angélica Garzón-Umerenkova, and Paul Sander. “Self- vs. External-Regulation Behavior ScaleTM in Different Psychological Contexts: A Validation Study.” Frontiers in Psychology 13 (2022).
Ma’muroh, Ma’muroh, Abqorina Abqorina, and Amrin Amrin. “The Concept of Tazkiyatun Nafs by Al-Ghazali and Its Implementation at Pesantren Darut Tasbih Tangerang.” Edu Cendikia: Jurnal Ilmiah Kependidikan 4, no. 02 (November 23, 2024): 833–844.
Masuwai, Azwani, Hafizhah Zulkifli, and Ab Halim Tamuri. “The Importance of Self-Assessment for Islamic Education Teacher as Mudarris.” International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development 12, no. 2 (2023).
Md Yahya, Nurul Shuhadah, and Mohd Manawi Mohd Akib. “Understanding the Concept of Fate as Islamic Psychotherapy.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 14, no. 9 (September 30, 2024).
Moeini-Jazani, Mehrad, Sumaya Albalooshi, and Bob M. Fennis. “Harnessing Opportunity Cost Salience for Effortless Self-Control.” Current Opinion in Psychology 61 (February 2025): 101945.
Moore, Christopher. The Virtue of Agency: Sôphrosunê and Self- Constitution in Classical Greece. The Virtue of Agency: Sôphrosunê and Self- Constitution in Classical Greece. USA: Oxford University Press, 2023.
Mukti, Abd, Amroeni Drajat, and Mourssi Abbas Mourssi Hassan Kahwash. “Moral Education According to Ibn Miskawayh and Al-Ghazali.” JURNAL TARBIYAH 28, no. 1 (2021).
Nasution, Umaruddin, and Casmini Casmini. “Integrasi Pemikiran Imam Al-Ghazali &Ivan Pavlov Dalam Membentuk Prilaku Peserta Didik.” INSANIA : Jurnal Pemikiran Alternatif Kependidikan 25, no. 1 (2020).
Niemiec, Ryan M., Pninit Russo-Netzer, and Kenneth I. Pargament. “The Decoding of the Human Spirit: A Synergy of Spirituality and Character Strengths Toward Wholeness.” Frontiers in Psychology 11 (2020).
Nur Adillah Omar. “Understanding the Concept of Rulership According to Al-Ghazali in Nasīhat Al-Mulūk and Machiavelli in The Prince: A Comparative Analysis.” LECTURES: Journal of Islamic and Education Studies 3, no. 2 (August 2, 2024): 116–135.
Nuryulia, Siti, Muhammad Ibrohim Futuwatuddin, Agus Gunawan, and Iffan Ahmad Gufron. “The Significance of Al-Ghazali’s Thought in Contemporary Islamic Education in Indonesia.” Al Hikmah: Journal of Education 5, no. 2 (December 12, 2024): 163.
Plato. Plato Complete Work. Edited by John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1997.
Quancai, Li, Cui Meng, and Cui Kunjie. “Social Control and Self-Control: Factors Linking Exposure to Domestic Violence and Adolescents’ Internet Gaming Addiction.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 14 (2023).
Quinn, Philip L. “Self-Control.” In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge, n.d.
Richmond, Joel Craig. “Al-Ghazālī’s Moral Psychology: From Self-Control to Self-Surrender.” Thesis, University of Toronto, 2021.
Ripaan, Usan. “Tinjauan Neurosains Terhadap Konsep Nafs (Amarah, Lawwamah, Dan Muthmainnah) Menurut Al-Ghazali Dan Relevansinya Terhadap Pendidikan Islam.” Islamadina : Jurnal Pemikiran Islam (2023).
Rothman, Abdallah, and Adrian Coyle. “Toward a Framework for Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy: An Islamic Model of the Soul.” Journal of Religion and Health 57, no. 5 (2018).
Shahruddin, Mohd Solahuddin, Mohd Yadman Sarwan, Muhammad Syukri Mohd Ashmir Wong, Nasharuddin Mohammad, Muhammad Zuhaili Saiman, and S Salahudin Suyurno. “The Influence of Tahfiz Education on the Human Soul According to Al-Ghazali’s Perspective.” Journal of Quran Sunnah Education & Special Needs 8, no. 2 (December 1, 2024): 104–112.
Soleh, Achmad Khudori. “Al-Ghazali’s Concept of Happiness in The Alchemy of Happiness.” Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 12, no. 2 (2022).
Steć, Małgorzata, Małgorzata Maria Kulik, and Anna Wendołowska. “From Supporting Moral Competence to Fostering Spiritual Growth: The Psycho-Didactic Potential of the Konstanz Method of Dilemma Discussion (Kmdd®).” Religions 12, no. 8 (2021).
Sumanta. “The Values of Perfect Human Beings in the Dignity Seven of Insān Kāmil.” Journal of Social Studies Education Research 12, no. 4 (2021).
Sweeney, Patrick J., and Louis W. Fry. “Character Development through Spiritual Leadership.” Consulting Psychology Journal 64, no. 2 (2012).
Torres, Jorge. “Madness and Vice in Plato’s Republic.” British Journal for the History of Philosophy 29, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 373–393.
Vu, Mai Chi, and Nicholas Burton. “The Influence of Spiritual Traditions on the Interplay of Subjective and Normative Interpretations of Meaningful Work.” Journal of Business Ethics 180, no. 2 (October 4, 2022): 543–566.
Werner, Kaitlyn M., and Brett Q. Ford. “Self-Control: An Integrative Framework.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2023.
Yazaki, Saeko. “To Discipline or to Forget: A Sufi–Zen Comparative Analysis of the Self in the Writings of al-Ghazālī and Dōgen.” Religions 15, no. 8 (July 30, 2024): 929.
———. “Ar-Risālah al-Ladūniyyah.” In Al-Quṣūr al-Awā’il, edited by Muḥammad Muṣṭafā Abū al-A‘lā. Vol. II. Mesir: Maktabah al-Jundī, 1970.
———. Iḥyā’ ‘Ulūm Ad-Dīn. Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm, 2005.
———. Kimiyā’ as-Sa‘ādah. Edited by Najāḥ ‘Auḍ. Kairo: Dār al-Muqaṭṭam, 2010.
———. Ma‘ārij al-Qudsi. Kairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1964.
———. Mi‘rāj as-Sālikīn. Kairo: Silsilāt aṡ-Ṡaqafah al-Islamiyyah, 1964.
Al-Mesilini, Seyed Zuhair. “A Comparative Study of the Relationship Between Happiness and Reason in the Views of Socrates and Plato, with Emphasis on the Interpretation of Alexander of Aphrodisias and Abu Nasr al-Farabi.” Journal of Ecohumanism 3, no. 8 (December 20, 2024).
Amy, Najamuddin, Subagyo Adam, and Suparto Wijoyo. “The Concept of Akhlaqul Karimah as a Basic Principle of Character Building in West Nusa Tenggara Indonesia.” PalArch’s Journak of Archeology of Egypt/Egyptology 17, no. 6 (2020).
van Baal, Simon Thomas, Lukasz Walasek, Antonio Verdejo-Garcia, and Jakob Hohwy. “Impulsivity and Self-Control as Timeless Concepts: A Conceptual Analysis of Preferences in Intertemporal Choice,” August 30, 2022.
Bamboulis, Chloe. “Self-Knowledge as Self-Improvement in Plato’s Dialogues and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy.” Theory and Psychology 33, no. 3 (2023).
Becker, Daniela, Katharina Bernecker, Aiste Guobyte, and Daniel Ganama. “‘Pleasureful Self-Control’? A New Perspective on Old Problems.” Current Opinion in Psychology 60 (December 2024): 101888.
Budur, Taylan. “Virtue-Based Leadership and Organizational Commitment: A Study from Al-Ghazali’s Perspective.” International Journal of Ethics and Systems (August 22, 2024).
Calenda, Guido. “Theaetetus 151e–186e: Did Plato Refute Protagoras?” Peitho. Examina Antiqua 15, no. 1 (December 12, 2024): 209–230.
Campbell, Douglas R. “Self-Motion and Cognition: Plato’s Theory of the Soul.” Southern Journal of Philosophy 59, no. 4 (2021).
Carmen Cozma. “In Quest for Virtue: Learning From a Great Tradition.” Philosophy Study 12, no. 6 (2022).
Cinta, Fitria, Nafisatun Najwa, Roni Subhan, and Imam Bonjol Jauhari. “Educational Objectives and Criteria for the Ideal Teacher Perspective of Plato and Al Ghazali.” Al Qalam: Jurnal Ilmiah Keagamaan dan Kemasyarakatan 17, no. 5 (September 7, 2023): 3031.
Cobb-Clark, Deborah A., Sarah C. Dahmann, Daniel A. Kamhöfer, and Hannah Schildberg-Hörisch. “Sophistication about Self-Control.” Journal of Public Economics 238 (October 2024): 105196.
Dilnavoz, Raximdjanova. “Comparative Analysis of the Role of the Phenomenon of Freedom in the Views of Plato and Farobi.” Current Research Journal of Pedagogics 5, no. 9 (September 1, 2024): 56–66.
Englert, Chris. “Self-Control – A Critical Discussion of a Key Concept in Sport and Exercise Psychology.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 80 (2025): 102878.
Fowler Davis, Sally, and Megan Davies. “Understanding the Effects of Social Cohesion on Social Wellbeing: A Scoping Review.” International Journal of Public Health 70 (January 30, 2025).
Fujita, Kentaro. “On Conceptualizing Self-Control as More Than the Effortful Inhibition of Impulses.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15, no. 4 (November 17, 2011): 352–366.
Fujita, Kentaro, Jessica J. Carnevale, and Yaacov Trope. “Understanding Self-Control as a Whole vs. Part Dynamic.” Neuroethics 11, no. 3 (2018).
Ghufron, M. Nur, and Rini Risnawati. Teori-Teori Psikologi. Yogyakarta: Ar-Ruzz Media, 2010.
Hanafi F. L. and Hambali A.Y.R. “Hakikat Penyucian Jiwa (Takiyat An-Nafs) Dalam Perspektif Al-Ghazali.” Gunung Djati Conference Series 19 (2013).
Hay, Carter, Walter Forrest, Brian Stults, Ryan Meldrum, and Brennan Kirkpatrick. “Collective Self-Control as a Feature of Social Contexts: Theoretical Arguments and a Multilevel Empirical Test.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (2023).
Hirsch, Christina, Charlotte von Bülow, and Peter Simpson. “Stoicism, Philosophy as a Way of Life and Negative Capability: Developing a Capacity for Working in Radical Uncertainty.” Leadership 19, no. 5 (2023).
Inzlicht, Michael, Kaitlyn M. Werner, Julia L. Briskin, and Brent W. Roberts. “Integrating Models of Self-Regulation.” Annual Review of Psychology, 2021.
Irawan, Andi Wahyu, M. Solehuddin, Ilfiandra Ilfiandra, and Hani Yulindrasari. “Building a Culture of Peace in Education: An Exploration of Al-Ghazali’s Thoughts on Inner and Social Peace.” Southeast Asian Journal of Islamic Education 5, no. 2 (2023).
James, Robin. “Waves of Moderation: The Sound of Sophrosyne in Ancient Greek and Neoliberal Times.” In Sound and Affect: Voice, Music, World, edited by Judith Lochhead, 50:365–383. London: University of Chicago Press, 2021.
Kosim, Nandang, and Aat Royhatudin. “Konsep Merdeka Belajar Dalam Kitab Ihya ’Ulumuddin Menurut Pemikiran Imam Ghazali.” Ta’dibiya 4, no. 2 (October 1, 2024): 1–13.
de la Fuente, Jesús, Mónica Pachón-Basallo, José Manuel Martínez-Vicente, Francisco Javier Peralta-Sánchez, Angélica Garzón-Umerenkova, and Paul Sander. “Self- vs. External-Regulation Behavior ScaleTM in Different Psychological Contexts: A Validation Study.” Frontiers in Psychology 13 (2022).
Ma’muroh, Ma’muroh, Abqorina Abqorina, and Amrin Amrin. “The Concept of Tazkiyatun Nafs by Al-Ghazali and Its Implementation at Pesantren Darut Tasbih Tangerang.” Edu Cendikia: Jurnal Ilmiah Kependidikan 4, no. 02 (November 23, 2024): 833–844.
Masuwai, Azwani, Hafizhah Zulkifli, and Ab Halim Tamuri. “The Importance of Self-Assessment for Islamic Education Teacher as Mudarris.” International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development 12, no. 2 (2023).
Md Yahya, Nurul Shuhadah, and Mohd Manawi Mohd Akib. “Understanding the Concept of Fate as Islamic Psychotherapy.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 14, no. 9 (September 30, 2024).
Moeini-Jazani, Mehrad, Sumaya Albalooshi, and Bob M. Fennis. “Harnessing Opportunity Cost Salience for Effortless Self-Control.” Current Opinion in Psychology 61 (February 2025): 101945.
Moore, Christopher. The Virtue of Agency: Sôphrosunê and Self- Constitution in Classical Greece. The Virtue of Agency: Sôphrosunê and Self- Constitution in Classical Greece. USA: Oxford University Press, 2023.
Mukti, Abd, Amroeni Drajat, and Mourssi Abbas Mourssi Hassan Kahwash. “Moral Education According to Ibn Miskawayh and Al-Ghazali.” JURNAL TARBIYAH 28, no. 1 (2021).
Nasution, Umaruddin, and Casmini Casmini. “Integrasi Pemikiran Imam Al-Ghazali &Ivan Pavlov Dalam Membentuk Prilaku Peserta Didik.” INSANIA : Jurnal Pemikiran Alternatif Kependidikan 25, no. 1 (2020).
Niemiec, Ryan M., Pninit Russo-Netzer, and Kenneth I. Pargament. “The Decoding of the Human Spirit: A Synergy of Spirituality and Character Strengths Toward Wholeness.” Frontiers in Psychology 11 (2020).
Nur Adillah Omar. “Understanding the Concept of Rulership According to Al-Ghazali in Nasīhat Al-Mulūk and Machiavelli in The Prince: A Comparative Analysis.” LECTURES: Journal of Islamic and Education Studies 3, no. 2 (August 2, 2024): 116–135.
Nuryulia, Siti, Muhammad Ibrohim Futuwatuddin, Agus Gunawan, and Iffan Ahmad Gufron. “The Significance of Al-Ghazali’s Thought in Contemporary Islamic Education in Indonesia.” Al Hikmah: Journal of Education 5, no. 2 (December 12, 2024): 163.
Plato. Plato Complete Work. Edited by John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1997.
Quancai, Li, Cui Meng, and Cui Kunjie. “Social Control and Self-Control: Factors Linking Exposure to Domestic Violence and Adolescents’ Internet Gaming Addiction.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 14 (2023).
Quinn, Philip L. “Self-Control.” In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge, n.d.
Richmond, Joel Craig. “Al-Ghazālī’s Moral Psychology: From Self-Control to Self-Surrender.” Thesis, University of Toronto, 2021.
Ripaan, Usan. “Tinjauan Neurosains Terhadap Konsep Nafs (Amarah, Lawwamah, Dan Muthmainnah) Menurut Al-Ghazali Dan Relevansinya Terhadap Pendidikan Islam.” Islamadina : Jurnal Pemikiran Islam (2023).
Rothman, Abdallah, and Adrian Coyle. “Toward a Framework for Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy: An Islamic Model of the Soul.” Journal of Religion and Health 57, no. 5 (2018).
Shahruddin, Mohd Solahuddin, Mohd Yadman Sarwan, Muhammad Syukri Mohd Ashmir Wong, Nasharuddin Mohammad, Muhammad Zuhaili Saiman, and S Salahudin Suyurno. “The Influence of Tahfiz Education on the Human Soul According to Al-Ghazali’s Perspective.” Journal of Quran Sunnah Education & Special Needs 8, no. 2 (December 1, 2024): 104–112.
Soleh, Achmad Khudori. “Al-Ghazali’s Concept of Happiness in The Alchemy of Happiness.” Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 12, no. 2 (2022).
Steć, Małgorzata, Małgorzata Maria Kulik, and Anna Wendołowska. “From Supporting Moral Competence to Fostering Spiritual Growth: The Psycho-Didactic Potential of the Konstanz Method of Dilemma Discussion (Kmdd®).” Religions 12, no. 8 (2021).
Sumanta. “The Values of Perfect Human Beings in the Dignity Seven of Insān Kāmil.” Journal of Social Studies Education Research 12, no. 4 (2021).
Sweeney, Patrick J., and Louis W. Fry. “Character Development through Spiritual Leadership.” Consulting Psychology Journal 64, no. 2 (2012).
Torres, Jorge. “Madness and Vice in Plato’s Republic.” British Journal for the History of Philosophy 29, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 373–393.
Vu, Mai Chi, and Nicholas Burton. “The Influence of Spiritual Traditions on the Interplay of Subjective and Normative Interpretations of Meaningful Work.” Journal of Business Ethics 180, no. 2 (October 4, 2022): 543–566.
Werner, Kaitlyn M., and Brett Q. Ford. “Self-Control: An Integrative Framework.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2023.
Yazaki, Saeko. “To Discipline or to Forget: A Sufi–Zen Comparative Analysis of the Self in the Writings of al-Ghazālī and Dōgen.” Religions 15, no. 8 (July 30, 2024): 929.
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2025-11-25
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